Analyzing Correlation using Categorical Data and the Chi-Square

Two Distinct Chi-Square Tests

Two distinct chi-square tests were employed by the authors to look into the relationship between gender, race, and sexual orientation. A substantial correlation between gender and sexual orientation was determined using the first chi-square test, and a relationship between gender and race was found using the second. They both employed a 4 by 2 table layout. Lesbian/gay, bisexual, questioning, and straight individuals were designated as SSB variables for sexual orientation in the first chi-square test (same-sex sexual behavior). White, Black, Hispanic, and other races were among the race variables. According to their analysis, more than half of the study's adolescent participants identified as bisexual and white. Regarding gender associations, they did find that more males were likely to identify as homosexual while females tended to identify themselves as straight with same-sex sexual behavior.

Limitations of the Study

While the study does shed light on victimization and negative outcomes such as poor academics, substance use, and suicide-related behavior experienced by the LGBQ and SSB youth community, it doesn't compare or contrast these experiences to the straight, non-SSB youth community. The population used for the study only included those that identified as LGBQ or SSB. No analysis was done on students who identified themselves as heterosexual and non-SSB. Since heterosexual, non-SSB students were not included in the study, we cannot compare the victimization or negative outcomes of either groups. Even though the study did not give much insight on the scale of negative outcomes or victimization experienced by the straight, non-SSB students, they do provide and cite previous literature which includes previous studies that have confirmed the theory that LGBQ students experience victimization and negative outcomes at higher levels.

Limitation of the Study's Scope

The biggest limitation for this study was the absence of the LGBQ youth population that was not enrolled in high school through the public education system. The purpose of the study was to identify correlations between sexual orientation and victimization and negative outcomes experienced. However, their study cannot achieve a generalized understanding of the LGBQ youth group with a study group that is limited to the high school public education system. Due to the struggles that have been documented by the LGBQ youth outlined in this research, it is safe to assume that a good proportion of the students do not attend high school through the public-school system. Some may have dropped out due to hardships, homelessness, or attending alternative forms of education. At the current moment, the study has only revealed the struggles experienced by LGBQ youth who are enrolled in school.

Analysis of Personality and Crime

Two main questions were asked by the authors of this article: Are some people criminal prone and is there a criminal personality? To answer these questions, they decided to conduct an analysis of personalities associated with female and male genders. Their purpose was to determine if there is a correlation between personality, gender, and crime. To do so they used a two-pronged approach that analyzed delinquent behavior along with their criminal involvement. The performed the studies in New Zealand and the U.S. so that any environmental and cultural differences could be identified. Ultimately, they hope to prove that there is such a thing as crime personality and to be able to link personality differences to crime.

Personality Variables Associated with Delinquent Behavior

In Table 2, ten different personality variables measured against self-reported and informant-reported delinquents. Each type of delinquent was then broken out by gender. In total, five of the ten personalities had positive associations with both female and male delinquents regardless of reporting style. Aggression, alienation, stress reaction, and social potency were the only ones that were positive associations across the board for every group with aggression being the highest correlation for both male and female delinquents, whether they were self-reported or informant-reported. Those who are prone to committing crimes generally displayed traits of aggression. Traditionalism, harm avoidance, and control were the only personality variables that had a negative association across the board. Of the three, traditionalism has the lowest correlation to delinquents. If interpreted correctly, one could assume that delinquents are less likely to display traits of traditionalism, whether they were self-reported or informant reported.

Differences in Delinquency Reporting and Gender

During the study, the authors found that there was little difference between both measures of delinquency reporting and gender. The only personality variable that has a significant difference between male and female was achievement. Self-reported delinquent females showed a correlation of -.13 in contrast to self-reporting males showing a .00 correlation. In Table 5, the authors compared three high-order personalities against both measures of delinquency and gender. The high-order personalities that had the highest correlation were constraint and negative emotionality. To prove whether the findings can be applied in a general manner or if they are community specific, another analysis was performed in a separate area. The findings showed a similar pattern for both constraint and negative emotionality. Constraint had a negative association with crime for both female and male delinquents on all reporting styles. Negative emotionality had a positive correlation for all reporting measures and both genders.

References

Button, D. M., & Worthen, M.G. (2014). “General Strain Theory for LGBQ and SSB Youth The Importance of Intersectionality in the Future of Feminist Criminology.” Feminist Criminology, 9(4), 270 – 297.

Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Krueger, R. F., & Scmutte, P. S. (1994). “Are Some People Crime-Prone? Replications of the Personality Crime Relationships Across Countries, Genders, Races, and Methods.” Criminology, 32(2), 163-195.