Social Sustainability in Housing Architecture

The modern housing professionals have understood the concept of sustainability as a component of economic and social equity. Architects and other construction professionals have undertaken initiatives under a built environment with the safety of workers on the site being paramount. The aspect of using designs to reduce the safety risks is a new phenomenon that has been adopted in the construction industry. In essence, the development of cities should be sustainable as well as the cultural, economic, social and environmental factors that affect housing developments. Issues that relate to the wellbeing of the people and protection of their culture are risk-bearing considerations while developing housing projects. This dissertation will focus on the global evolution of housing architecture due social-cultural sustainability factors.

Privacy

The global social sustainability principle on privacy is enhanced through implementing architectural housing designs that respect the spatial behaviours of people in a particular culture. The aspect of personal spaces is largely influenced by the culture of the people and the distance between the privacy needs of an individual and the existent social contact. Privacy in housing brings sanity in social environments that are based on mass culture. Privacy is not achieved easily, especially in housing projects that are overcrowded. Architectural designs have bearing on this matter because of the materials that are used in construction so as to reduce distractors such as noise and hence the decisions made by these professional affects the social life of the people (Ahmed, 2012). Designs should be made with an aim of improving social sustainability by bettering the psychological well-being of the people as privacy is linked to a lifestyle that is modest. Promoting privacy and personal space in architectural designs has also been emphasized by other researchers because of the similar preferences of anonymity, reserve, and solitude in both males and females (Demirbas & Demirkan, 2000). To achieve the objective of meeting privacy perception of town dwellers, the concept of urban metabolism has been noted to be key in generating sustainable designs (Pistoni & Bonin, 2017).

Ahmed, K. G. (2012). Urban social sustainability: A study of the Emirati local communities in Al Ain. Journal of Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability, 5(1), 41-66.

Demirbas, O. O., & Demirkan, H. (2000). Privacy dimensions: A case study in the interior architecture design studio. Journal of environmental psychology, 20(1), 53-64.

Pistoni, R., & Bonin, S. (2017). Urban metabolism planning and designing approaches between quantitative analysis and urban landscape. City, Territory and Architecture, 4(1), 20.

Safety

Architects must develop housing structures that include the safety by design principle. In the context of global sustainability principles, this requires safe transportation of individuals and goods by preventing possible falls. It relates to ensuring floor finishes that are not slippery and there is adequate lighting especially in the corridors and vertical circulation routes. Precautions are also necessary to prevent fire outbreaks using fire resistant materials and the safe fire escape routes in case this occurs. Furthermore, the use of safety glass instead of ordinary glass is essential for buildings to ensure safety in case of disasters. The PtD (Designs to ensure construction safety) concept is a social sustainability initiative that is meant to improve safety but the challenge remains lack of expertise on construction safety among the professional designers (Toole & Carpenter, 2012). In a study by Morrow, Cameron, & Hare (2015), it is noted that injuries and damages incurred during construction can be significantly reduced by generation of safe architectural designs which consider health of the workers. Additionally, theoretical framework for safety procedures has been proposed as a measure not only during construction phase but also during the initial architectural design phase (Rewel & Jansen, S. (2015).

Toole, T. M., & Carpenter, G. (2012). Prevention through design as a path toward social sustainability. Journal of architectural engineering, 19(3), 168-173.

Rewel, K. & Jansen, S. (2015). Critical factors for structural safety in the design and construction phase. Journal of performance of constructed facilities. 29(3). 1-12.

Morrow, S., Cameron, L., & Hare, B. (2015). The effects of framing on the development of the design engineer: framing health and safety in design. Journal of architectural engineering and Design Management, 11(5) 338-359

Security

Security is a sustainability principle that is crucial in modern days and architects have realized that some aspects of social sustainability are complementing the methods used to improve building security. The occupants of the houses must be assured on internal as well as external security. As part of the social sustainability effort, houses should have emergency exit points and outdoor spaces must be secured against possible threats such as housebreakers (Peters, 2016). The aspect of social sustainability involves the development of designs that will reduce the impact of natural disasters on buildings as part of the security feature of the architectural plans. Another important factor relates to collective security and the fact that some settlements are community-based and a developer must understand the social value of people living a community life.

Peters, T. (2016). Social sustainability in context: rediscovering Ingrid Gehl's Bo-miljø. arq:

Architectural Research Quarterly, 20(4), 371-380.

Elizabeth Murphy, Martina & Nahod, Maja-Marija. (2017). Stakeholder competency in evaluating the environmental impacts of infrastructure projects using BIM. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management. 24. 00-00. 10.1108/ECAM-07-2015-0106.

Caldas, Carlos & Gupta, Ashish. (2017). Critical factors impacting the performance of mega-projects. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management. 24. 00-00. 10.1108/ECAM-05-2016-0117.

Ownership

The personalisation of space is something that many people desire as they are able to control the immediate environment due to the sense of ownership. This informs the democratic system in Denmark that allows tenants to have control on maintenance and renovation of the houses they are renting. The social-cultural element about ownership stems from happiness and satisfaction due to the ability to influence the immediate environment (Chiu, 2004). Essentially, this goal can be achieved through architectural designs that leave some space for homeowners to customise their houses and compound. At the same time, a research by Gemenetzi (2017) showed that most residents of Athens explained their ideal house to be that in the suburbs of the city even though single house and not within the central area. This shows that considering the aspect of ownership in relation to the environment is crucial in generating housing designs. In the same vein, it is cr54ucial to promote the culture of ownership in public buildings in order to they are taken care of and hence, increase their durability (Bosman, 2018).

Chiu, R. L. (2004). Socio-cultural sustainability of housing: a conceptual exploration. Housing, Theory and Society,

21(2), 65-76.

Bosman, Gerhard. (2018). Ownership and care in Culturally Significant Architecture: Three case studies. 24.

Gemenetzi, Georgia & Mourati, V & , E.Zervas. (2017). Residential choices and preferences in Athens: Implications for city planning.

Experience

The living environment should give the occupants varied experiences which necessitate for constructing buildings that interact with nature and have multiple amenities (Guy, 2010a). Designs that are meant to achieve social sustainability must be developed with the intention of enhancing the experience by making it feasible to have a community life. Studies have shown that space design and style influences the pleasure-arousal experience of the buildings’ occupants (Khaleghimoghaddam & Havva, 2018). To achieve users’ optimal experience, architectures have been encouraged to adopt environmental and energy conservation designs (Burke & Asmar, 2018).

Guy, S. (2010a). Pragmatic ecologies: situating sustainable building. Architectural Science Review, 53(1), 21-28.

Khaleghimoghaddam, Navid & Alkan Bala, Havva. (2018). The Impact of Environmental and Architectural Design on Users’ Affective Experience. YBL Journal of Built Environment. 6. 10.2478/jbe-2018-0001.

Burke, R.D. & Parrish, Kristen & El Asmar, M. (2018). Environmental Product Declarations: Use in the Architectural and Engineering Design Process to Support Sustainable Construction. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management. 144. 10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001481.

Functionality

The functionality of a building should be understood from the point of view relating to the psychological needs it helps to satisfy. This aspect of design can be guaranteed by coming up with designs with designations for areas for gardening, a place to play and engage in learning activities (Ali & Faruquie, 2015). The function of architectural structures must help the people engaging in fulfilling activities for their wellbeing as part of social-cultural sustainability initiatives. In the aftermath of the 2016 earthquake in central Italy, it was realized that majority of the losses were from non-structural elements. Still, this can severely affect the functionality of building and hence, there is need to design for such elements as well (Perrone et al., 2018). At the same time, architects are encouraged to select bio-inspired materials in a way that balances environmental conservation, costs, and functionality or the building element (Imani et al., 2018).

Ali, A., & Faruquie, D. S. (2015). A quasi-systematic review on effectiveness of social and Cultural sustainability practices in built environment. World Academy of Science, Engineering, and Technology, International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic, Business and Industrial Engineering, 9(12), 4298-4305.

Imani, Marzieh & Donn, Michael & Balador, Zahra. (2018). Bio-Inspired Materials: Contribution of Biology to Energy Efficiency of Buildings. 10.1007/978-3-319-48281-1_136-1.

Perrone, D., Nascimbene, R., Calvi, P., & Magliulo, G. (2018). Seismic performance of non-structural elements during the 2016 Central Italy earthquake. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering. 10.1007/s10518-018-0361-5.

Comfort

Designs that are culturally sustainable should be hinged on the spatial behaviour of an individual or the community. The concept of social distances may differ between various groups but it determines the comfort the people derive from houses or other facilities inspired by architecture (Guy, 2010b). Designers developing socially sustainable building plans should consider perceptions relating to spatial distances, the spatial behaviour, and layouts existing in different social groups. Usually, it is crucial to consider the comfort evaluation index during building design, particularly choosing construction materials based on the thermal comfort temperature (Duanmu et al., 2017). Moreover, buildings in schools should be properly designed with the concept of comfort being implemented appropriately. This can greatly help illustrate to students how good designs are crucial in reducing maintenance costs and promoting  comfortable architectural designs among the students (Demirel & Ozcetin, 2018).

Guy, S. (2010b). Pragmatic ecologies: situating sustainable building. Architectural Science Review, 53(1), 21-28.

Demirel, Füsun & özçetin, Zuhal. (2018). A Study on the Acoustic Comfort Evaluation of Construction Elements in Architectural Design Studio and Classes. 160-168. 10.1007/978-3-319-63709-9_12.

Duanmu, Lin & Sun, Xingwei & Jin, Quan & Zhai, Zhiqiang. (2017). Relationship between Human Thermal Comfort and Indoor Thermal Environment Parameters in Various Climatic Regions of China. Procedia Engineering. 205. 2871-2878. 10.1016/j.proeng.2017.09.913.

Accessibility

The accessibility of an architectural structure is very important in the enhancement of human contact and one aspect that is important is workability because it satisfies the need for interaction creating a reputable public life. Social sustainability in building architecture involves the connection that exists between the physical realms and interaction with the social world in which accessibility is a critical element (Amado et al.,2010) The barriers to access must be removed in the designs by creating courtyards and footpaths that lead to the structures. Some of the benefits of designing housing units that are accessible include high social cohesion, social capital, and abundance of economic opportunities (Galal, 2018). In the same vein, designing accessible architectural structures is important in reducing crime rate in an area (Mitra & Bardhan, 2017).  

Amado, M. P., Santos, C. V., Moura, E. B., & Silva, V. G. (2010). Public participation in sustainable urban planning. International journal of human and social sciences, 5(2), 102-108.

Galal Ahmed, Khaled. (2018). Sustainable Urban Regeneration Strategies for Deteriorated Neighborhoods Centers in UAE. 736-749. 10.1007/978-3-319-63709-9_56.

Mitra, Parama & Bardhan, Suchandra. (2017). Tracing the Importance of Safety Audit in Making Inclusive Cities: A Step Towards Smart Cities. Procedia Environmental Sciences. 37. 420-428. 10.1016/j.proenv.2017.03.011.

Usability

Homes and other architectural structures have specific uses that are intertwined with needs of the owners and the expectation of the social-cultural experiences they will derive from the facilities. The uses should be integrated with the environment to improve the experience (Mateus & Bragança, 2011).Furthermore, the designs can ensure the spatial organisation is instrumental to ensure satisfaction, for example, in the case of a family setting which leads to a sense of security. Usually, before using a particular modified material in construction, it is crucial to ensure it is tested by both the architect and contractor to ensure it passes the relevant tests and will not fail when in use (Santos & Beirao, 2017). Moreover, to generate good architectural designs, there is need for architects to be fully conversant with the intended use of the proposed structure (Christina et al., 2015).

Mateus, R., & Bragança, L. (2011). Sustainability assessment and rating of buildings: Developing the methodology SBToolPT–H. Building and Environment, 46(10), 1962-1971.

Santos, Deborah & Nuno Dinis Cabral Beirão, José. (2017). Generative tool to support architectural design decision of earthbag building domes. 538-543. 10.5151/sigradi2017-083.

Cristina Bittencourt, Maria & Lúcia Duarte do Valle Pereira, Vera & Pacheco Júnior, Waldemar. (2015). The Usability of Architectural Spaces: Objective and Subjective Qualities of Built Environment as Multidisciplinary Construction. Procedia Manufacturing. 3. 6429-6436. 10.1016/j.promfg.2015.07.919.

Location

Sustainable infrastructures location must be placed within the context of culture and other environmental values that compete. The challenges that relate to the environment must be addressed and the issues of cultural heritage and the value bestowed on a particular location (Zhang, 2016). The design process is, thus, subject to interrogation to ensure that a structure being created satisfies the social-cultural sustainability principles. To address the problem of slums in cities, architectures are expected to design high rise buildings. However, a major challenge of these complexes is poor social relations, depersonalized spaces, and psychosomatic problems (Nagar, 2018). Still, studies indicate that an ecological approach should be taken into account when choosing the location for a proposed building so that there is natural and cultural sustainability (Eminagaoglu, 2018).

Zhang, D. (2016). Courtyard housing and cultural sustainability: theory, practice, and product.

Routledge.

Nagar, Dinesh. (2018). Exploring relationship between Architectural Design and Social Behavior: a case study on High-Rise Complexes.

Eminagaoglu, Zehra. (2018). Ecological approaches in rural settlement: a case of Turkey. International Journal of Ecosystems and Ecology Science. 8.

Adaptability

Architectural designs that are inspired by socio-cultural sustainability norms can be applied in different areas because they are sensitive to the cultural heritage and respect for environmental integrity. The sustainable architecture is adaptable because it guarantees the wellbeing of the people by improving their experiences while interacting with the structures (Wu, 2014). The essence of adaptability is finding a balance between technological developments and ensuring the environment is exploited sustainably. To develop the idea of adaptation in structures, students should be taught how to design elements to be adaptable and fluid after failure (Burns, 2018). Such a step can help the construction industry experience more durable buildings which are sustainable and cheaper to maintain (Langston, 2018).

Wu, J. (2014). Urban ecology and sustainability: The state-of-the-science and future directions.

Landscape and Urban Planning, 125, 209-221.

Burns, Sean. (2018). Questioning the Finite: Lessons in Structural Design and Adaptability for Beginning Design Students. University of Cincinnati

Langston, Craig. (2018). Sustainable Design and Building Conversion. 83-104. 10.1002/9781119231455.ch5.

Flexibility

The architectural designs that are created with consideration of the underlying social, environmental, economic and cultural factors must be flexible so as to allow the homeowners to customize the immediate environment. This is meant to help them implement their ideas and building a sense of spontaneity in their interaction with the structures (Fuad-Luke, 2013). Notably, there should be recognition that the new ideals in architecture are shaped by initiatives to enhance sustainability play a critical role in shaping behaviours to protect the environment while making housing developments. Some of the ways in which an architectural design can be flexible include spaces for solar panel installation, room for vertical expansion, and flexible interior spaces (Andalib, 2017). The underlying idea in flexible architectural designs is to ensure optimal performance of the structure in terms of energy and space utilization (Du et al., 2018).

Fuad-Luke, A. (2013). Design activism: beautiful strangeness for a sustainable world. Routledge.

du, Tiantian & Turrin, Michela & Jansen, S.C. & Dobbelsteen, Andy & Biloria, Nimish. (2018). A Review on Automatic Generation of Architectural Space Layouts with Energy Performance Optimization.

Andalib, Mohammad Saied. (2017). Practical adoption of flexibility in engineering design and contract document preparation.

Principle

Indicators

Sources

Tool

Privacy

Personal spaces

Distractors such as noise

(Ahmed, 2012)

(Demirbas& Demirkan, 2000);

(Pistoni & Bonin, 2017)

Design Analysis

Safety

Control Injury

(Toole& Carpenter, 2012)

(Rewel & Jansen, 2015)

(Morrow, Cameron, & Hare, 2015)

Design Analysis

Material Analysis

Revise local codes

Security

Secured against possible threats

(Peters, 2016)

(Caldas, & Gupta, 2017)

(Elizabeth et al., 2017)

Design Analysis

Material Analysis

Revise local codes

Comfort

Spatial distances & spatial behaviors of individuals

(Guy, 2010b); (Duanmu et al., 2017); (Demirel et al., 2018)

Design Analysis

Questionnaire

Adaptability

Sensitive to the cultural heritage and environmental integrity

(Wu, 2014); (Langston, 2018); (Burns, 2018)

Design Analysis

Questionnaire

Flexibility

Customize to the immediate environment

(Fuad-Luke, 2013); (Du et al., 2018); (Andalib, 2017)

Design Analysis

Questionnaire

Accessibility

Workability, the connection that exists between the physical realms and interaction with the social world

(Amado et al., 2010); (Mitra & Bardhan, 2017); (Galal, 2018)

Design Analysis

Space Syntax

Experiences

Constructing buildings that interact with nature and multiple amenities

(Guy, 2010a); (Burke & Asmar, 2018); (Khaleghimoghaddam & Havva, 2018)

Design Analysis

Questionnaire

Ownership

Personalization of space

(Chiu, 2004); (Bosman, 2018);

(Gemenetzi, 2017)

Design Analysis

Questionnaire

Usability

Specific uses that are intertwined with needs of the owners and the expectation of the social-cultural experiences

(Mateus & Braganca, 2011); (Christina et al., 2015); (Santos & Beirao, 2017)

Design Analysis

Material Analysis

Revise local codes

Location

Structure being created satisfies the social-cultural sustainability principles

(Zhang, 2016); (Eminagaoglu, 2018); (Nagar, 2018)

Revise local codes

Functionality

Psychological needs it helps to satisfy

(Ali & Faruquie, 2015); (Perrone et al., 2018); (Imani et al., 2018)

Design Analysis

Questionnaire

Conclusion

The principles on cultural sustainability in the field of architecture are crucial in modern

times and they are reinforced by the decisions made by the designers to integrate a structure with the environment. The architectural outcomes are aligned with the goals on cultural sustainability.

Essentially, the cultural characteristics of building structures are analyzed as a socio-cultural subset of particular region. Furthermore, the architectural tradition of an area is usually a representation of

the cultural changes that have taken place over time.

References

Ahmed, K. G. (2012). Urban social sustainability: A study of the Emirati local communities in Al Ain. Journal of Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability, 5(1), 41-66.

Ali, A. & Faruquie, D. S. (2015). A Quasi-Systematic Review on Effectiveness of Social and Cultural Sustainability Practices in Built Environment. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic, Business and Industrial Engineering,

9(12), 4298-4305.

Amado, M. P., Santos, C. V., Moura, E. B., & Silva, V. G. (2010). Public participation in sustainable urban planning. International journal of human and social sciences, 5(2), 102-108.

Andalib, Mohammad Saied. (2017). Practical adoption of flexibility in engineering design and contract document preparation.

 Burke, R.D. & Parrish, Kristen & El Asmar, M. (2018). Environmental Product Declarations: Use in the Architectural and Engineering Design Process to Support Sustainable Construction. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management. 144. 10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001481.

Bosman, Gerhard. (2018). Ownership and care in Culturally Significant Architecture: Three case studies. 24. University of the Free State.

Burns, Sean. (2018). Questioning the Finite: Lessons in Structural Design and Adaptability for Beginning Design Students. University of Cincinnati

Caldas, Carlos & Gupta, Ashish. (2017). Critical factors impacting the performance of mega-projects. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management. 24. 00-00. 10.1108/ECAM-05-2016-0117.

Chiu, R. L. (2004). Socio-cultural sustainability of housing: a conceptual exploration. Housing, Theory and Society,

21(2), 65-76.

Cristina Bittencourt, Maria & Lúcia Duarte do Valle Pereira, Vera & Pacheco Júnior, Waldemar. (2015). The Usability of Architectural Spaces: Objective and Subjective Qualities of Built Environment as Multidisciplinary Construction. Procedia Manufacturing. 3. 6429-6436. 10.1016/j.promfg.2015.07.919.

Demirel, Füsun & özçetin, Zuhal. (2018). A Study on the Acoustic Comfort Evaluation of Construction Elements in Architectural Design Studio and Classes. 160-168. 10.1007/978-3-319-63709-9_12.

Demirbas, O. O., & Demirkan, H. (2000). Privacy dimensions: A case study in the interior architecture design studio. Journal of environmental psychology, 20(1), 53-64.

Du, Tiantian & Turrin, Michela & Jansen, S.C. & Dobbelsteen, Andy & Biloria, Nimish. (2018). A Review on Automatic Generation of Architectural Space Layouts with Energy Performance Optimization.

Duanmu, Lin & Sun, Xingwei & Jin, Quan & Zhai, Zhiqiang. (2017). Relationship between Human Thermal Comfort and Indoor Thermal Environment Parameters in Various Climatic Regions of China. Procedia Engineering. 205. 2871-2878. 10.1016/j.proeng.2017.09.913.

Elizabeth Murphy, Martina & Nahod, Maja-Marija. (2017). Stakeholder competency in evaluating the environmental impacts of infrastructure projects using BIM. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management. 24. 00-00. 10.1108/ECAM-07-2015-0106.

Eminagaoglu, Zehra. (2018). Ecological approaches in rural settlement: a case of Turkey. International Journal of Ecosystems and Ecology Science. 8.

Fuad-Luke, A. (2013). Design activism: beautiful strangeness for a sustainable world.

Galal Ahmed, Khaled. (2018). Sustainable Urban Regeneration Strategies for Deteriorated Neighborhoods Centers in UAE. 736-749. 10.1007/978-3-319-63709-9_56.

Gemenetzi, Georgia & Mourati, V & , E.Zervas. (2017). Residential choices and preferences in Athens: Implications for city planning. Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

 Guy, S. (2010a). Pragmatic ecologies: situating sustainable building. Architectural Science Landscape and Urban Planning, 125, 209-221.

Guy, S. (2010b). Pragmatic ecologies: situating sustainable building. Architectural Science Review, 53(1), 21-28.

Imani, Marzieh & Donn, Michael & Balador, Zahra. (2018). Bio-Inspired Materials: Contribution of Biology to Energy Efficiency of Buildings. 10.1007/978-3-319-48281-1_136-1.

Khaleghimoghaddam, Navid & Alkan Bala, Havva. (2018). The Impact of Environmental and Architectural Design on Users’ Affective Experience. YBL Journal of Built Environment. 6. 10.2478/jbe-2018-0001.

Langston, Craig. (2018). Sustainable Design and Building Conversion. 83-104. 10.1002/9781119231455.ch5.

Mateus, R. & Bragança, L. (2011). Sustainability assessment and rating of buildings:

Developing the methodology SBToolPT–H. Building and Environment, 46(10), 1962-1971.

Mitra, Parama & Bardhan, Suchandra. (2017). Tracing the Importance of Safety Audit in Making Inclusive Cities: A Step Towards Smart Cities. Procedia Environmental Sciences. 37. 420-428. 10.1016/j.proenv.2017.03.011.

 Morrow, S., Cameron, L., & Hare, B. (2015). The effects of framing on the development of the design engineer: framing health and safety in design. Journal of architectural engineering and Design Management, 11(5) 338-359

Nagar, Dinesh. (2018). Exploring relationship between Architectural Design and Social Behavior: a case study on High-Rise Complexes.

Perrone, D., Nascimbene, R., Calvi, P., & Magliulo, G. (2018). Seismic performance of non-structural elements during the 2016 Central Italy earthquake. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering. 10.1007/s10518-018-0361-5.Peters, T. (2016). Social sustainability in context: rediscovering Ingrid Gehl's Bo-miljø. arq:Architectural Research Quarterly, 20(4), 371-380.

Pistoni, R., & Bonin, S. (2017). Urban metabolism planning and designing approaches between quantitative analysis and urban landscape. City, Territory and Architecture, 4(1), 20.

Rewel, K. & Jansen, S. (2015). Critical factors for structural safety in the design and construction phase. Journal of performance of constructed facilities. 29(3). 1-12.

Santos, Deborah & Nuno Dinis Cabral Beirão, José. (2017). Generative tool to support architectural design decision of earthbag building domes. 538-543. 10.5151/sigradi2017-083.

Toole, T. M. & Carpenter, G. (2012). Prevention through design as a path toward social sustainability. Journal of architectural engineering, 19(3), 168-173.

Wu, J. (2014). Urban ecology and sustainability: The state-of-the-science and future directions.

Landscape and Urban Planning, 125, 209-221.

Zhang, D. (2016). Courtyard housing and cultural sustainability: theory, practice, and product.