The Theory of T.H. Marshall

Plural society requires rights that promote equality for all citizens regardless of cultural orientation. T.H. Marshall developed a theory that suggested that citizenship is bestowed on individuals who are members of a particular group that respects specific duties and rights. According to Marshall, there were no criteria for developing the powers and, and hence he divided citizenship into three categories: political, civil and social.

The Civil Rights

The civil rights address people's freedom such as that of speech, liberty, thought and the right to own property. Court of justice is one of the institutions that are associated with this part of citizenship.

The Political Element

The political element provides the right to participate in activities that give people political power through election or nomination. The similar institutions of this element were the councils of local government and parliament.

The Social Element

The joint portion provided people with the right to live in the civilized society. Therefore, the citizens were to be equipped with social and economic security and privileges.

Marshall's theory has been criticized by various authors, one of them being Revi, who suggests that modern society seeks to appreciate cultural differences and heritage within a country. Revi also highlighted the retreat of the welfare state and rise of consumer society as challenges to the social rights owned by citizens. In other words, Revi saw the social, political and civil rights as intertwined and overlapping.

According to Revi, The universal rights cannot accommodate the cultural pluralism because it cannot provide equality of status. On the contrary, the global model does not demand similar results, but it allows the participation of members of the community or a nation in the substance of civilized life. Universality will enable people to do the same and enjoy a similar set of rights. Therefore, member of the community is entitled to be provided with services in the country without proving that they deserve them. Revi also appreciates that the Marshall model should not be abandoned because it can still address some cultural issues in the society regarding cultural differences. Additionally, most of the rights discussed in theory are always upheld even today.

Another author that criticized the universal model by Marshall is Kymlicka who developed a model of 'differentiated citizenship' which dictates that people should be a part of the political community not just to be their individuals but to be a part of groups as well. He also came up with three sets of rights which includes different representation, multicultural, and self-government rights. The issue of cultural diversity, as well as political and social marginalization, can be solved by the use of differentiated citizenship because all people have equal rights and they should enjoy similar privileges. Additionally, each group is accorded its rights that should be respected by everyone in the nation. In a multicultural country like Canada, the reasons for every group are not in competition.

Passive citizenship is members of the community that did not have the right to vote or participate in matters that involved the formation of the government. The state welfare should be upheld to ensure social and economic equity among the citizens by providing for the poor. Therefore, Kymlicka's theory of treating, in the same manner, should be abandoned because the less fortunate in the society will not manage to enjoy their rights fully. For instance, economic participation cannot be realized when some people don't have capital. Citizenship should not be treated as a platform to handle people with legitimate social inequality. A democratic society should be created based on ideal equality where citizens are empowered by the government. De facto should also be observed in capitalist countries. State institutions and projects such as insurance and pension are supposed to be installed as a means of empowering citizens both socially and economically. The Beveridge Report should also be adopted by governments to eliminate diseases, squalor, ignorance, and idleness.

Currently, Kymlicka's individual rights and self-government rights should be upheld to allow cultural diversity. Additionally, marshal social and political powers should also be kept to ensure human dignity and progress. Democracy should be adopted by the government and equality provided to all citizens.