A Cuisine with Global Economic and Environmental Impacts

The quality of sushi, once prized for its distinctive culinary style, has reached an all-time low as a result of globalization and overfishing, lowering the standard at most sushi restaurants to that which the US Food and Drug Administration considers to be acceptable. Once upon a time, an exotic foreign dish was given to the very affluent as one of Japan's most prized delicacies. Sushi today is comparable to a college student's diet of rancid rice and day-old seafood, which costs less than a dollar. These mediocre flavors were once seen as fresh seafood caught from the depths of the Pacific Ocean. Combining fresh fish with rice and other Japanese spices has resulted in the rather cheap sushi that is available today.

The Japanese food known as sushi has broken away from its traditional techniques so that new flavors and ideas regarding its preparation as well as presentation continue to emerge. The dish’s origins can be traced back to feudal Japan. Although it was a staple in Japan, it is currently world renowned and can be found in places as diverse as the United States, the Middle East, and Africa, among other regions. Similar to Chinese take-out, sushi restaurants are easy to find across the United States. However, since its origins are in East Asia, the current offerings in the West have drifted far from the original offerings. The flavors, presentations, and techniques being applied currently are popularizing sushi. In addition, chefs are constantly innovating in order to stay ahead of the pack in an art that is no longer exclusive.

Some experienced sushi chefs, some who may have been practicing the art for more than two decades, have varied opinions regarding the trajectory sushi is taking. Some believe that sushi preparation is just like another art, and there should be countless ways of preparing and presenting it. On the other hand, others regard the break from tradition as somewhat disrespectful. Some may also regard the excessive styling as a waste of meagre food and fish resources. It inspires a classic debate of quality versus quality. The rapid increase in the number of sushi restaurants across the world has inspired restaurant owners to strive to be different, to be able to attract customers, in an environment that has become competitive. The competition also implies that restaurant owners may adopt capitalistic tendencies that ensure high returns while saving money and attracting the highest number of customers. Consequently, sushi is fast becoming a ‘fast-food.’ This is evident in what has emerged as conveyor belt sushi, or kaitenzushi (Feng 206), where speed, simplicity, and quantity, take priority over quality in expensive sushi restaurants.

Sushi is highly regarded by some. Some scholars claim that it not only nourishes the body but also enriches the brain while delighting the eye. According to Mouritsen, sushi “is a healthy food, in which the quality of the raw ingredients, the taste, the chemical composition, the physical texture, and the aesthetic presentation are inseparable entities” (2). Sushi chefs, therefore, take pleasure in preparing their offerings and the artistry that is required to present the food. All these aspects of the preparation are part of the meal and the experience. In some cases, some sushi masters and their restaurants become world renowned and pass on their skills to their children or heirs to continue the trade with great pride for the family (Gelb).

Although sushi consumption, and indeed, globalization, have introduced the world to new cultures and associated culinary delights, the consumption of sushi has had some adverse effects on the environment. The major adverse effects are depletion of fish stocks for the species that are favored by sushi chefs all over the world, and the interference with the ecological balance in the seas in which these species are depleted. This paper, therefore, attempts to investigate the effects of an increase in sushi consumption, particularly in areas far from its original Japan. Here, the author will present a brief account of the history of sushi in Japan, and development in the industry, with the aim of demonstrating that sushi production and consumption has had numerous negative impacts on economies, societies, and the environment, at both local and global scales.

A Brief History of Sushi

Sushi has a rich history. The techniques employed by chefs and enthusiasts today have been developed over many centuries, and continue to be enhanced or tweaked as the practice spreads across the globe.

“The art of sushi and its consumption cannot be fully appreciated contextually without a close examination of its corresponding rich culinary history, aesthetic philosophy, and fascinating anthropological roots. What has become a culinary, epicurean, and cultural phenomenon in the United States is a cuisine that has evolved from surprisingly modest beginnings.” (Feng 205).

Sushi, for the Japanese, has immense cultural meaning. Some of the aspects of sushi that are valuable to its originators, and potentially to other consumers, are the aesthetics, as well as philosophical underpinnings. Sushi is a culinary style that began as a form of preserving fish. In the 7th century, the mountain folk of Southeast Asia discovered the pickling technique. The Japanese came up with a similar technique that involved pressing cleaned fish between salt and rice. This technique employed a heavy stone over several weeks. A lighter stone was then adopted for the packing process until when the fish was deemed ready for consumption. In the course of the fermentation process, the rice gives off lactic acid, which in turn has a pickling effect on the pressed fish (Feng). Naresushi is the edible product that emerged from the above method of sushi processing. Naresushi was made from carp. At the time, it was customary to consume only the fish and do away with the rice. However, since naresushi preparation takes a few months, it seemed like a waste of perfectly good rice (Feng 205).

The earliest references to sushi in Japanese text were recorded as early as 718 AD in two sets of laws, namely Yororitsuryo and Taiho-ritsuryo. In the two texts, sushi served as a form of tax. In the following 8 centuries, up to the 19th century, there were major developments in sushi production and consumption. For example, in the Muromachi Period, from 1336 to 1537, oshizushi production was refined while the fermentation process was abandoned in favor of vinegarization. In the Azuchi-Momoyama period, from 1573 to 1603, namanari, also known as half-made sushi, was invented, which required fermentation over relatively shorter time periods (Feng 205).

In the mid-17th century, a doctor known as Matsumoto Yoshichi stumbled on the technique of adding vinegar to the sushi rice. The tartness resulted in an interesting and re-invigorating taste, while significantly cutting the time between preparation and consumption. At the beginning of the 18th century, oshizushi preparation was refined in Osaka, so that it reached Edo by mid-18th century. Since oshizushi still demanded considerable periods of fermentation, food stores posted signs outside to advise potential customers on when to drop by for a fresh sushi helping. Nevertheless, it was still a primitive sushi form. The texture, seasoning, as well as taste, was still a far cry from what is on offer at restaurants today (Feng 206).

In the 1820s, the Edoites were introduced to a recipe variation that is closer to what sushi enthusiasts partake of today. Hanaya Yohei introduced raw fish to sushi rice, starting the tradition of serving sushi as a snack food at its freshest form from portable stalls. The portable stalls remained popular as World War II raged, gradually being replaced by more sophisticated sushi shops. The portable stalls were the precursors of present day sushi bars and rotating restaurants. After World War II, there was a rapid decline in the presence of sushi stalls. This was because of concerted efforts to improve hygienic standards, in addition to planning efforts that favored western mannerisms that also frowned upon eating while standing (Feng 206).

Again, Buddhist decrees and Shinto taboos over the centuries frowned upon killing and consuming animal flesh. While cattle, chicken, horses, and dogs were outlawed on the dinner table by Emperor Temmu in 675 A. D., fish consumption flourished, and the Japanese exploited marine resources both extensively and creatively. In addition, prohibition of other sources of meat implies that the Japanese became averse to use of spices and oily food. The geographical location of Japan also made it possible to exploit marine resources, including the food resources.

“Japan’s geography makes the nation especially well-suited to the type of agriculture and seafood farming sushi as a cuisine requires. Japan is an island nation whose surrounding seas are warmed by Kuroshio, a plankton-rich Japanese Current, abundant with an impressive variety of seafood such as bonito, herring, salmon, and whales. Stretching from cold subarctic to warm tropical seas, the Japanese coastline is full of large and small shallow bays. The Inland Sea provides a calm haven for fishing in its numerous bays.” (Feng 206)

Japanese culture and cuisine emphasize the practical, so that food and ingredients will be drawn from nature. The islands are also largely mountainous. Consequently, the scarce arable land has been terraced for rice production and a few other tenable crops, while the ocean has provided essential protein from fish. Most world cultures will attempt to introduce novel tastes to their food through spices. On the other hand, Japanese cooking techniques attempt to retain the natural flavors of food, with minimal artificial additives or processes.

One of the most recent additions to the constantly evolving sushi experience is the kaitenzushi, or conveyor belt sushi. The patrons in a sushi restaurant are treated to a service system that has integrated conveyor belts that transport food gracefully across a restaurant to seated customers. The customers then pick fresh pieces as the chefs constantly prepare the fish. This system was reportedly invented in the 1950s, inspired by a beer production system in a factory. Conveyor belt sushi has since grown into a niche within the industry, estimated to yield up to 246 billion yen per annum, with approximately 3000 specialist restaurants in Japan (Feng 206).

Sushi in the United States

As a modern cuisine, sushi witnessed its most intense development in the 20th century. Japanese food is one of the most popular choices in restaurants in the United States. Sushi rolls can be found in American malls and supermarkets. In addition, there are more than 5000 ‘sushi restaurants’ in the U.S., and on average, $36,000,000 worth of seaweed is sold yearly to support the local sushi industry. It is reported that the consular offices in Japan grant over 1000 visas every year to sushi chefs, and other workers in the industry, such as tuna traders (Feng 207).

“Between 1988 and 1998, the number of sushi restaurants in the U.S quadrupled. At the release of their 2006 restaurant guides, Zagat Survey announced that sushi restaurants lead the "Top Food" and/or "Most Popular lists" in nearly all cities in the United States.33 The popularity of sushi is hardly an inexplicable concept: it is at once healthful and nutritious without being bland or mundane, it is also a fusion of exotic flavors, refined textures, and elegant presentation.” (Feng 207).

The emergence of Japan as a major global power, later on, promoted their culture, including sushi cuisine. Japan was a key business destination, and this facilitated the spread of the sushi fad to the U. S. and in turn a global audience. Due to America’s proximity to the Pacific Rim, and the dietary requirements of its early settlers, sushi found its way into the U.S. via the West Coast. Japanese cuisine in America must have first established itself in Little Tokyo, in downtown Los Angeles. The Los Angeles Japanese Association was formed in 1897, setting the stage for more Japanese businesses to set up shop and thrive. Although the Pacific War threatened the business operations of the Japanese, the food industry somehow managed to recover with time, with greater progress following the conclusion of the War in 1945. In fact, before 1945, there was very little mention of Japanese cuisine in the American media before World War II. In the 1960s, however, articles and recipes began to emerge in magazines in the U.S (Feng 207).

Sushi has permeated American culture so much so that some aspects of sushi cooking have returned to Japan in virtually unrecognizable forms. “American sushi” is now available in Japan, with some restaurants selling ‘sushi from New York’ to Japanese who are eager to find out what the American have been able to do to a centuries-old cuisine (Allen and Sakamoto). This has brought to the fore issues regarding Western influence on Japanese culture, particularly the influence of America. It also illustrates globalization and its effects (Allen and Sakamoto 1). The Americans and Europeans have been able to domesticate a Japanese product. It is like McDonald's returning to America with Japanese influences.

Global Tuna Consumption

The development and expansion, as well as the industrialization of Bluefin fishery in the Mediterranean, have been set off in part by the developments in the global sushi market that emerged in the late 21st century. Japan has been the primary destination for such catches and is regarded as the major driver of such kind of growth (Longo). For a long time, marine resources have provided vital protein and calories for the Japanese population, since there is very little arable land to farm on. Japan has a large appetite for fish. For example, in 2005, it imported more than 2.7 million tons of fish, in fresh, frozen as well as processed forms. In addition, the value of Japan’s seafood imports in 2005 was over $14 billion (Longo 407).

The Japanese market takes the largest share of Bluefin tuna. For instance, in 2005, Japan consumed more than half of the world's Atlantic Bluefin tuna imports. In addition, in recent years, France, Spain, America, Italy, and Japan make up 95% of the global Bluefin tuna market, with Japan’s share accounting for up to 75% of the value of global imports (Longo 407). This implies that Japan is willing to pay a higher premium to acquire tuna of the highest quality, to satisfy its larger appetite for tuna, sushi, and associated products.

While the Japanese have consumed sushi over many centuries, the earliest forms were fermented and salted fish and rice. Many today might think that sushi is a product that arrived with the advent of novel refrigeration technologies. Nevertheless, the introduction of technologies such as refrigeration, growing economies, and increased global trade have had varied effects on sushi production and consumption. Traditional techniques have progressively given way to novel processes in the production and distribution chain and facilitated diverse consumption patterns.

“At its peak, one portion of high-quality sushi/sashimi could easily sell for fifty to one hundred dollars or more in prestigious Japanese restaurants. Recently, at Japan's renowned Tsukiji wholesale market, market prices have reached historic highs of $900 a kilo. For example, at Tsukiji's first auction of 2009, a 128 kg Bluefin sold for $820 per kg, and a new record was set when a single Bluefin was auctioned for over $200,000. …they display the soaring global market and transformation of an item that was recent, in market terms, a low-value species. For instance, only a few decades ago, blue fin tuna sold for five to ten cents a pound in the United States market.” (Longo 407).

Following the resurgence of the economy of Japan after World War II, the demand for blue fin tuna and sushi grew exponentially. The growth in demand also resulted in the increase in price for the products in the global markets. In Japan, there were prized cuts on offer in diverse forms. For example, the fatty belly of the blue fin, emerged as a delicacy commanding a very high price in recent times.

Before the ongoing Bluefin tuna market boom, the Atlantic Bluefin tuna did not attract much attention from fisheries. The Atlantic Bluefin tuna had considerably low market value and was minimally exploited when compared to other tuna species, including albacore and skipjack (Longo). In fact, in the West Atlantic, Bluefin was more popular with sports fishermen. Their large sizes and incredible strength and speed attracted recreational fishermen. For many commercial fishermen, they were more of a nuisance, since they are voracious feeders that may consume other commercially viable species that were being sought by the commercial fishermen (Longo 408).

In Western markets, Bluefin tuna were acquired by pet food processing plants. In Japan, when Bluefin tuna were consumed, the fatty parts were discarded (Longo). Today, however, the fatty sections are the most valuable to sushi enthusiasts, although they were previously tossed to cats hanging around the kitchen or fish market. The red flesh that is characteristic of Bluefin tuna was not as highly regarded as that of the white flesh. However, after World War II, the red flesh varieties became luxury food items (Longo 408). Consequently, bluefin tuna has been transformed from cat food to an exotic and expensive food item.

“The expansionary nature of the capitalist treadmill of production and the technological operations that emerged within the natural and social context of the modern world-system played a central role in transforming and shaping the modern global Bluefin market. With such a high price on its head, fishing effort for Bluefin tuna expanded quickly throughout the world.” (Longo 408)

Bluefin tuna has over time become the superstar of sushi. Although there are other species that are used in the sushi preparation, Bluefin tuna is considered to be of the highest quality. Following the prosperity of the Japanese population, high-end restaurants and sushi bars have gradually turned to Bluefin tuna. Consequently, the business elite in Japan does not recognize many alternative species. Bluefin sushi is a status symbol for such groups of people.

Sushi Farming

In the late 20th century, global fish consumption increased facilitated by aquaculture production. Since global marine captures could not meet the requirements of the populations of key consumer countries, the fishing industry introduced novel technologies and techniques to boost catch and support other associated industries. Bluefin tuna ranches not only provided more fish for sushi production in various countries but also provided an opportunity to cultivate other industries based on surplus fish supplies.

Bluefin tuna ranches or farms are almost synonymous with livestock rearing farms. Tuna are captured and enclosed within specific areas in the open ocean. They are then fed until they reach maturity, or until they fatten or attain desirable weights. However, Bluefin tuna farms have not been as successful as those rearing other fish species such as salmon and tilapia (Longo). Considering the limited success with Bluefin tuna ranches, industry players adopted another method, referred to as purse-seine capture. In purse-seine capture, ‘seeds’ are captured and transported to fattening facilities in the Mediterranean in a delicate process (Longo 415). In 2008, there were approximately 70 tuna ranching bodies across the Mediterranean spread across 11 countries. These facilities had the potential of producing more than 63,000 tons of Bluefin tuna (Longo 415).

In the open water, wild Bluefin tuna survive as opportunistic predators. They feed on a wide range of small and large fish. However, captive and controlled environments ensure that they can be fed on specific diets of frozen fish with high fat and oil contents to yield Bluefin that satisfies the demands of global sushi markets. Often, the feed consists of a mixture of sardines, herring, mackerels, squid, and anchovies. The ‘ranchers' will often feed the fish up to 60% of their weight in feed per day (Longo 418).

Environmental Concerns over Bluefin Tuna Fishing and Farming

Tuna farming has attracted a great deal of scrutiny from scientists and environmental bodies, especially in Europe. This is principal because of the increased pressure on Atlantic Bluefin tuna, especially in the wake of the development of tuna ranches in the Mediterranean. Atlantic Bluefin tuna species are under increasing pressure, with potentially negative implications for their future stocks. In the last few decades, the populations of Atlantic bluefin tuna have been significantly depleted, so much that the International Union for the Conservation of Nature has sounded an alarm, declaring the species' fish stocks as endangered (Longo 418).

Tuna ranching has also elicited major concerns from environmentalists regarding increased pressure on species used to feed tuna, inefficient use of energy, as well as the accumulation of unused or waste feed in farms that have adopted intensive feeding approaches (Longo). Ranching of Atlantic Bluefin tuna does not result in an increase in food production, but, on the contrary, a net energy loss. According to researchers, tens of thousands of fisheries resources are lost in such ranches because of the inefficiencies associated with the model of production. In addition, the ranching facilities require enormous amounts of fuel to run (Longo 419).

Intensive tuna fishing has also adversely affected social systems, particularly for coastal communities. For example, in Western Sicily, traditional fishing with traps was a key social activity for the communities inhabiting the region. However, the intensive fishing and subsequent decline in fish stocks have negatively affected the economies of such communities, not to mention cultures. Bluefin stocks in the seas have been decreasing, and predictions warn of future downward trends and even collapse (MacKenzie, Mosegaard and Rosenberg 25). Fishing tuna using simple tools and techniques is currently unsustainable. This has robbed some of the affected communities of a source of employment as well as a source of nutrition, despite the fact that they have been practicing the activities for many generations.

Some communities had built flourishing industries based on fish species that are currently on the decline due to overfishing and an enormous appetite for sushi. For example, some land-based activities that flourished together with fishing include boat and net making and repair (Longo 419). Losing a source of livelihood is likely to negatively affect family and cultural ties. Also, while the local communities used to sustainably exploit the fisheries resources to support their daily lives, the trans-national corporations plying their trade in such waters are depleting the fish stocks, while making great profits at the expense of local communities.

On another level, overfishing of tuna has led to the emigration of some populations in search of better economic opportunities. Since the traditional fishing coastal communities in areas like Sicily in Italy may not have the knowledge or capacity to venture out to the sea with sophisticated and expensive equipment, they have had to look elsewhere for a living. It is reported that many of the local populations migrated to Europe, Germany, Northern Italy, as well as the United States (Longo 420). Their previous homes have now become expensive holiday resorts for wealthy Europeans and tourists. The construction of vacation homes in areas that were previously humble fishing villages has resulted in an increase in home values in such locations. In addition, young individuals, who in a different era would have been humble fishermen, are currently seeking work as workers in the tourism and hospitality industry (Longo 420).

Although the overfishing of tuna could not be the sole reason for unemployment and emigration in areas like Sicily in the 20th century, the depletion of such fish stocks has certainly influenced the economies, societies, and ecology of the affected regions. While fishing may be a seasonal activity, it can still be a major source of employment in areas where it is carried out sustainably.

Sushi Health Hazards

Methyl mercury is a strong form of mercury that originates from the microbial action on mercury in potentially polluted water resources. This potent form of mercury becomes more lethal as it advances through the food-chain. Mercury that is available in the environment is often attributed to human activity, including coal power plants and other industrial processes. Some bacteria have the ability to transform mercury that is available in nature into methyl mercury, a neurotoxin in organic form. This implies that such a form can easily find its way into the food chain of various organisms, including human. According to the National Academy of Sciences, mercury-contaminated fish represent that primary avenue for exposure to humans (Feng 211).

Extensive research in medical and other spheres have demonstrated that even minimal levels of mercury exposure in women could lead to neurological problems in their children (Feng 211). Mercury exposure could affect movement, language, as well as hearing. In addition, mercury can have deleterious effects on a developing fetus’ brain, leading to shorter attention spans and reduced IQs. Sushi consumption, therefore, poses numerous risks for mothers and their offspring. Many of the fish selected for sushi are apex predators in their respective food chains. This implies that these species have high concentrations of mercury. Fish that occupy the high positions in the food chain accumulate the greatest mercury levels, through a biological process known as bioaccumulation (Feng 211). There is no way for patrons of restaurants to know whether sushi they have been served has high levels of mercury. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency and the U S Food and Drug Administration only provide a list of species that might have high levels of mercury, and which may be avoided by expectant women.

Proper handling and sanitation are emphasized when preparing fish or sushi, either at a restaurant or home. To retain the texture, taste, and integrity that is characteristic of sushi, high heat methods that are often recommended for eliminating pathogens in our food are not applied. Sufficient freezing may eliminate infection by parasites. Nevertheless, sushi preparation involves a high degree of direct hand contact with the food. Consuming uncooked or undercooked food presents numerous risks for humans. The major risk factor is parasites (Feng 213).

The rates of parasitic infections are always higher in regions that have higher consumption rates like Japan. In other locations such as The Netherlands and South America’s Pacific Coast, where raw fish is habitually consumed, also report high rates of infection. Similarly, there has been an increase in rates of parasitic infection in the U S following an increase in sushi consumption over the past few decades. Some of the major parasites that sushi consumers need to be wary of include roundworms, flukes, and tapeworms. Seafood is regarded as the major sources of the above parasites, with many infections going undetected in the population in the U.S (Feng 213).

Conclusion

Japanese cooking is a highly visual art. It is reported that at imperial banquets in ancient times court etiquette demanded that the guests take the time to derive pleasure from simply appreciating the visuals of the foods on offer by relishing ‘the flavor of the shape.' In Japan, cooking as a profession is highly respected. Moreover, sushi preparation is regarded as a time-honored activity from which Japanese nationals derive pride. Over the past several decades, sushi production and consumption have become widespread, adopting varied styles. Sushi is currently available to many, from humble roadside stalls to exclusive epicurean settings. It can be found in convenience stores as well as within airport halls.

However, in order for sushi to find its way to restaurants and tables of enthusiasts, a lot of fishing has to take place on the high seas. Over the years, overfishing has resulted in the dwindling of fish stocks of choice species, to near depletion levels in some cases. This has had varied effects on communities that traditionally exploited such species, as well as the prices of the product on the global market. In addition, there are numerous adverse environmental impacts, where fishing interferes with food chains in the sea through selective fishing. However, some would argue that the novel fishing techniques and technologies have provided a living to much more people across the globe than they have robbed of a job in several traditional fishing villages.

Although sushi consumption is recognized as being a healthy habit, with rewards for the taste buds as well as the eyes, there are certain health hazards that need to be considered along with the production chain. Mercury poisoning threatens the well-being of unborn children of expectant mothers, while parasitic infections pose a risk to all consumers, owing to the direct handling techniques and preparation without heat.

This paper highlights diverse aspects of sushi history and production, as well as the effects of its increased consumption of fisheries and environmental resources. A research activity into the global Bluefin tuna farming industry reveals numerous impacts, with potentially political, economic, social, and environmental implications. It seems that sushi consumption has effects on a large scale. These are only likely to increase with the projected increase in consumer numbers. Moreover, as more individuals travel to Japan for business, or to other cities in the West, for example, the U.S., sushi consumption will become another product of globalization. Travelers from all over the world will also continue to export the culinary offering to other parts of the world, as more people earn more money and seek sophisticated experiences, tastes, and status symbols.

The story of sushi is a story of globalization. It presents a cuisine that is Japanese, and which is adopted in varied forms in far-flung countries so that we today have ‘American sushi.' Sushi production and consumption have also witnessed growth on a global scale. Trans-national corporations have taken over an activity that was previously the preserve of coastal communities, to supply the most prized cuts to Japanese and global markets. It is an account of livelihoods lost to support the tastes of strangers in other continents. In addition, the effects of activities in one location are affecting the livelihoods of communities in other locations and transforming their lives.

Works Cited

Allen, Matthew, and Rumi Sakamoto. "Sushi Reverses Course: Consuming American Sushi in Tokyo." (2011). The Asia Pacific Journal. Japan Focus. Print.

Jiro Dreams of Sushi. 2011. Directro: David Gelb

Feng, Cindy. "The Tale of Sushi: History and Regulations." Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 11.2 (2012): 205-20. Print.

Longo, Stefano B. "Global Sushi: The Political Economy of the Mediterranian Bluefin Tuna Fishery in the Modern Era." Journal of World-Systems Research 17.2 (2011): 403-27. Print.

MacKenzie, Brian R., Henrik Mosegaard, and Andrew A. Rosenberg. "Impending Collapse of Bluefin Tuna in the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean." Conservation Letters 2.1 (2009): 26-35. Print.

Mouritsen, Ole. "Sushi: Food for the Eye, the Body, & the Soul. 2009." New York: Springer. Print.