Daoist philosophical tradition and the Pre-Socratics line of thought

The current study work intends to compare the two lines of thinking, the Daoist philosophical tradition and the Pre-Socratics stream of thought, with the goal of identifying major parallels and contrasts. These two schools of thought differ in their epistemological models, ethical reflections, and perspectives on nature and human society. Although there are considerable distinctions between the Pre-Socratics and the Daoist school of thought, the similarities are striking.

What is Dao, and Why Are Ying and Yang Important?

Daoist thinking originated in China between the fourth and third centuries BC.The Daoist philosophical model suggests that people are able to maintain harmony in life by following the Dao, which means the path or the way. The classic text of Daoism philosophy possibly written by Lao Tzu is known as Dao De Jing, which means the Book of the Way in its Virtue. Lao Tzu is considered to be a mythical figure, whereas the philosophic metaphors and reflections collected under the text of Dao De Jing might be written by several authors living at that time. Another foundational text in Daoism, Zhuangzi, was written by Zhuang Zhou in the 4th century BC.

Group of the Greek philosophers called Pre-Socratics included ancient thinkers as Thales (625 BC), Anaximander (610 BC), Anaximenes (600 BC, approximately), Heraclitus (540 BC), Parmenides (515 BC), and Anaxagoras (500 BC). Pre-Socratics were active in the ancient Greek poleis in the 6th and 5th centuries BC (Grayling, Anthony 336). Western stage, and in particular early Greek philosophical system, is different from the Chinese stage as it focused primarily on using the logic and reasoning, and the idea of rationalism, which influenced the development of the early Greek philosophy.

Describe Ziporyn in Relation to the Book

In “Penumbra Unbound”, Brook Ziporyn explores the legacy of Guo Xiang, one of the prominent Daoist thinks, who developed his reasoning on freedom and spontaneity grounded in the Daoist foundational works. Brook Ziporyn critically reviews the Neo-Daoist philosophical problems of spontaneity, morality, interactivity, and also unity of independence and interdependence, explains coherence and importance of the Daoist line of thought, and shows its influence on later Chinese philosophy, with a specific focus set on Zen Buddhism.

The implications of the Daoist and Neo-Daoist lines of thought are also considered in comparison to several lines of Western philosophy, namely those of Spinoza, Kant, Schopenhauer, Fichte, Hegel and Heidegger (Ziporyn, Brook 150). Within this line of thought, Ziporyn reflects on the classical Daoist pronouncements of absence of anything beyond appearances, unity of oneness and difference, and returning into a natural state. Next, key points of Daoism are going to be analyzed based on Penumbra Unbound, and contrasted with the Pre-Socratics line of thought.

Nature and the Natural State

Confronted with the chaotic, uncivilized and unsystematic nature, one potential way of thinking and perception is trying to regain the condition of perfect civilization, aiming to be carved and polished. However, Daoism presents another response to this problem, representing civilization as the core problem of the human condition, which is opposite to the natural condition. Therefore, the path prescribed by the Daoism philosophy is the way to escape from the civilized state, cultivated by culture, social rituals and institutionalized human cleverness to our natural state (Gier, Nicholas 221).

One of the famous metaphors used to depict the natural state of humans is uncarved block, implying that the natural state of humans is not to be being carved and polished by the civilization into some kind of carved artifact, but instead to be a natural, uncarved wood. Institutionalized society conditions us to reason in terms of categories, oppresses us with discriminations and judgments that distract our attention from the direct experience of the natural world. Therefore, instead of adapting to the human civilization and institutionalized society, Daoist philosophers valued the direct experience of the natural world that occurs prior to the abstract reasoned interpretations, which are supposed to be carved by categories developed by human civilization. In the Daoist perspective, human civilization confines the direct experience of the natural world into the artificial categories, which represent merely the layer of veneer preventing access to the natural reality.

Does the Daoist have any Idea of Right or Wrong?

These anti-cultural views on human civilization were shared by some of the Pre-Socratic thinkers, and particularly, by Heraclitus. Heraclitus considered thinking in the categories of good and evil, righteous and wicked to be artificial and innate to institutionalized society, whereas the natural order does not have these distinctions. The absolute universal order is therefore considered more natural and real than artificial constructions of human civilization. Ethical values of human civilization, abstract constructs and categories of civilized reasoning are, therefore, deemed inapplicable and inferior to the natural cosmic order (Graham, Daniel W.).

How the Chinese Stage is Different from the Western Stage

On the other hand, Pre-Socratic thinkers were scientists who believed in cognoscibility of the external world and reliability of the scientific constructs and reasoning. For example, Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes were known for their advances in astronomy, geometrical reasoning, understanding diseases and investigating cause-and-effect relationships. Pre-Socratics also believed that the universe was formed by one base element, such as water, fire, etc. Therefore, Pre-Socratic philosophers to a great extent followed structured and rational approach in their reasoning aiming to understand the natural reality and nature. So they believed in rational and cognizable nature, which can be perceived through the civilized and polished human reasoning.

Daoism philosophers refer to the natural state and nature not only as the opposite of the cultivated civilization, but also as the state of fertility (Moeller, Hans-Georg 21). In Daoist foundational texts, the concept of fertility is explained through images of femininity, motherhood, reproduction, sexuality, water and river, whereas the whole universe is perceived as the constant process of living and dying, the cycle of fertility. In Dao De Jing, the following metaphors are used to connect sexuality and nature: “Know the masculine and maintain the feminine – be the world’s river” (Moeller, Hans-Georg 21). The cycle of reversion and turning back is perceived as the constant movement when something comes out of nothing, goes through the cycle and then returns back to nothing.

This perception of the constant process of living and dying can be referred to the Heraclitus metaphor of the flow of river, which also implies constant change of the natural state of things. The water of river is constantly flowing downstream, and therefore you cannot stand in the same river twice. Heraclitus applied this metaphor on a broad scale, implying that the universe is constantly changing, and the universe of one moment will always be different from the one in the next moment. Heraclitus, just as and Anaximander before him, has recognized the constant process of living and dying, and how fleeting and impermanent everything in the universe is. Everything exists in a constant state of coming to be and passing away. In both perspectives, the Daoist philosophers and Heraclitus, the cycle of life itself was seen as the only thing eternal and unbreakable, while the human civilization is supposed to follow the natural order of things and disappear.

Does the Daoist Stage have any Ethics?

The Daoist epistemological model of the universe implies that everything was created from a single source, the Dao. Everything that the single source creates has its opposite, and the relationship between the two opposites is the original dialectic dilemma that creates the opposite of the two. Therefore everything existing in the universe unites with its opposite and other things in Dao, as Dao is the universal unity of all things, which gave rise to all things to exist. The Dao as a whole is greater than the sum of the parts.

Simplified epistemological model suggested by the Daoist thinkers has three consequent stages. “The Dao created the one”, which in the first stage, implies that the Dao is a single origin of all things. Next stage, “The One created the Two” means that there are two sides, positive and negative side. Third stage is “The Two created the Three” is usually symbolized by Yin and Yang. Third stage signifies two opposites along with the dynamics of their relationship, the third factor that helps to avoid mutual exclusion and extinction of the opposites. Finally, everything existing in the universe was created by the three, two opposites combined with dynamics of their relationship.

Each element of the dialectic has its opposite, and the dynamics between the two is what drives the universe (Yin and Yang dynamics). In the molecule, there is a positively and negatively charged part, and the relationship between the two gives the molecule its substance. The symbol of Yin Yang refers to the unity of the prototypical opposites, the dark principle and the white principle, male and female cosmic strengths. These opposites are supposed to be spinning around the rigid center, which is supposed to reflect the unchangeable natural order. The symbol suggests a pictorial representation of the cycle of reversion, and the unity of the oneness and difference, elucidating that anything approaching one particular extreme inevitably becomes the one’s opposite. All things possess the forces of Yin and Yang, and therefore can constitute a part of a harmonious, constantly developing world. The inclusive standpoint, represented by the Daoist philosophy, is deemed to be achieved through the holistic awareness of the inseparability of the oneness and the many (Ziporyn, Brook 109).

This model of the universe created from the single source can be paralleled to the Pre-Socratic materialism, particularly to their emphasis on the origin of the world from the single, most basic material. For Thales this basic universal material had been water, whereas Anaximenes hypothesized that the most basic material was air. Anaximander pointed out the material basis of the world, but without considering earth, air, fire or water to be the universal basic material. Pre-Socratics also hypothesized further functioning of the Earth based on the basic material chosen to be origin of all other things. For example, Thales explains the Earth as a piece of wood floating on water. Therefore, while considering the universe to be created also from a single source, Pre-Socratics epistemological model is different from the Daoist model as it is more materialistic and less dynamic.

The key idea of the Daoist philosophy is human realignment with nature, the universal spirit that runs through everything. Dao, as the prescribed path, can be perceived as the universal awareness of the natural order rather than in the objective conditions of the current state of things. Therefore, instead of waging war or violent resisting to the opponent to change the current conditions, a human being following the Dao path should instead seek a form of the internal balance of consciousness that will help to act in accordance with the natural order. This kind of consciousness is rooted in experiencing any kind of event occurring on the life path from the perspective of the whole or natural order. Instead of cultivating a focused and one-sided attitude, which is attributable to the Western paradigm, the Dao path urges its followers to view events through as broad and spacious perspective as it is possible. It induces to step back from the immediate occupations of the mind and one’s own perceptions to give a space, in which one can recognize steps that should be taken to follow the natural order, to go with the flow of the natural reality. While Pre-Socratic philosophers still were focused on the human ambitions (to know the laws of the universal order, to build a fair society, etc.), the Daoist ‘ethics’ demands simply being in the present time and following the natural order.

Void and Non-Volitional Action

The core idea of the Daoist conduct in the world is standing aloof from the world’s affairs, while maintaining non-volitional action. Void, or the concept Wu, means negation of the fullness. Following the dialectical process of the Daoist model, void does not negation of something, but rather unites with something present to be the part of the life process and give the essential dynamics to its opposite (Watson, Burton 26).

Another concept in the Daoist paradigm referred to as wu-wei, which is literally translated as ‘do nothing’ and is derivative from the ‘wu’ concept, is non-volitional action, or shutting down all activities that society encourages us to do. The key purpose of non-volitional action is stripping away all of the negative strivings, artificial leanings, and the veneer that has been laid upon the natural state of things by human civilization. Non-volitional action can be considered as realization of the ‘wu’ reflecting the emptiness of inner state.

Another realization of ‘wu’ is the ‘wuzhi’, or non-knowledge, unthought, some sort of natural state, primordial discourse. All the ‘wu’ concepts are based on the premise that human actions, state, and thoughts are driven by artificial technology knowledge. Therefore human perception and experience might be transformed and distorted, and therefore it is essential to maintain non-knowledge to keep the perception natural.

The Pre-Socratic philosophers have their variations of the primordial discourse that emphasized the unity through diversity (Heraclitus’s Logos, Parmenides’s Apportionment, Anaximander’s Need, etc.), though these type of discourses were essentially different from the Daoist unthought and non-volitional action. Therefore the Daoist line of thought differs in its focus upon negation and emptiness as a way to reach natural perception and get rid of the artificial veneers.

Daoist line of thought can also be paralleled to Heidegger's hermeneutic phenomenology, particularly with regards to the concepts of Dao, Yin and Yang dynamics and non-volitional thinking. Heidegger defines the term ‘urprünglicher’ as thinking through the unthought, which is similar to the Daoist non-volitional action. Another notion, Heidegger’s Sein, can be compared to the Daoist Dao, while the Daoist void ‘wu’ can be paralleled to Heidegger’s Nichts (Burik, Steven 204). Heidegger has pointed out that logical volitional thinking cannot lead to the complete solution of the mystery and acknowledged that this line of thought was taken from Daoism (Burik, Steven 220). Following the Heidegger's hermeneutics approach (in essence, how we interpret things that we perceive to be true), there are different perspectives that can be maintained by the observer. These perspectives can be opposed and disagree with each other, but this does not change the single truth, which is itself interpreted. The truth (the Dao) is constant, although the perspectives (Yin and Yang, opposites interacting with each other) are potentially fluid and dynamic.

Comparison of Secondary Sources with Penumbra Unbound

First of all, the Daoist and the Pre-Socratics lines of thoughts are similar in their orientation towards nature, and in many cases represent the human civilization as the core problem of adverse human condition. The absolute natural order as it was considered by these lines of thought is positioned above the artificial constructions of the human civilization. From the ethical perspective, this means that the Daoist and the Pre-Socratic thinkers, both, intended the necessity to return to the natural state. These lines of thought also share in a certain degree negative guiding principle of getting rid of layers between human cognition and natural state of things.

Nature itself is perceived as the constant process of living and dying, the constant movement. Both, the Daoist and the Pre-Socratics (particularly, Heraclitus) have used the comparison with the flow of river to refer to the nature. The epistemological models of the Daoist and Pre-Socratics philosophies also presume the single origin of all things, which is the Dao for the Daoist thinkers and the most basic material (fire, air, water, earth) for Pre-Socratics. Model of the universe is assumed to be driven by a constant change and antagonistic forces, which are constantly resonating.

There are significant divergences between these lines of thought. The Daoist thinkers adhered to more negative approach in ethics and theology. The Daoist concepts of void, non-volitional action and unthought reflect the idea that human actions, thoughts and conditions are driven by artificial knowledge and concepts of human civilization, therefore the Dao path is the way to escape from the human civilization to our natural state. On the other hand, Pre-Socratics were less anti-cultural and followed structured and rational approach in their reasoning, without strong focus on the negative approach. Pre-Socratic thinkers were not only philosophers, but also scientists who believed into cognisability of the external world and reliability of the scientific constructs and reasoning.

Conclusion

To sum up the Daoist philosophers and the Pre-Socratics group of thinkers share some salient convergences and divergences, briefly outlined in the current research essay. These lines of thought also have influenced future generations of philosophers, and both can be considered in comparison with the several lines of Western philosophy, namely those of Spinoza, Kant, Schopenhauer, Fichte, Hegel and Heidegger.

Works Cited

Burik, Steven. End of Comparative Philosophy and the Task of Comparative Thinking, The: Heidegger, Derrida, and Daoism. Suny Press, 2010.

Gier, Nicholas F. Spiritual Titanism: Indian, Chinese, and Western Perspectives. SUNY Press, 2001.

Graham, Daniel W. "Heraclitus". Plato.Stanford.Edu, 2017, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/heraclitus/.

Grayling, Anthony C. "Philosophy: a guide through the subject." (1995).

Moeller, Hans-Georg. The philosophy of the Daodejing. Columbia University Press, 2006.

Watson, Burton. The complete works of Chuang Tzu. No. 80. Columbia University Press, 1968.

Ziporyn, Brook. The penumbra unbound: the Neo-Taoist philosophy of Guo Xiang. SUNY Press, 2003.